The study has two articulated objectives: on the one hand, to conduct research on and evaluate the presence in the scientific literature of classroom contextual factors determining reading comprehension and related teaching proposals and, on the other hand, to establish the common aspects of the conclusions reached by the scientific literature in order to detect possible opportunities for improvement in comprehension results. From a mixed methodological approach, this research is developed in two phases: the first consists of an integrative review from which a descriptive statistical study is carried out to relate dichotomous variables with contingency tables to obtain absolute frequencies and the chi-square statistic, and the association between classroom contextual factors and teaching proposals. The second phase consists of a critical examination of scientific texts. The results reveal the need to address all classroom contextual factors systematically and show the coinciding arguments in the conclusions reached in the scientific literature, which offers an opportunity for improvement born of the scientific consensus identified in the literature. We conclude with the need to carry out an exploration that shows to what extent these factors are known and attended to in Spanish classrooms by teachers and to design training and teaching proposals to meet the needs detected.
Article Details
How to Cite
Mena-Bernal, I., & Hoster, B. (2025). Identifying opportunities to improve reading comprehension levels: factors and didactic proposals. Ocnos. Journal of reading research, 24(2). https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2025.24.2.533
Mena-Bernal and Hoster: Identifying opportunities to improve reading comprehension levels: factors and teaching
proposals
Introduction
One of the main issues currently raised by scholars of reading education is how to
define, address and overcome the deficits that students present in relation to reading
comprehension (CompL) and their low levels of acquisition, which have once again been
highlighted in Spanish institutions through the Estudio Internacional de Progreso en Comprensión Lector (International Study of Progress in Reading Comprehension) (), where Spain on average scores 521, which places it below the average of the countries
that make up the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) and
the European Union (EU) (OECD average, 533; EU, 528).
The results obtained show that research efforts in the field of reading should focus
on improving the levels achieved by students in the aspects of comprehension worked
on in the classroom. It will therefore be necessary to consider what elements or factors
intervene in the work context in order to try to improve performance in the field
of reading and, more specifically, in the field of comprehension.
Link between CompL, academic performance and executive functions in primary school
In Spain, the legal framework () sets forth that - by the end of Primary Education - the acquisition of CompL by
pupils should consist of the development of ‘reading comprehension strategies before,
during and after reading’ that allow for the ‘identification of the most relevant
ideas and interpretation of the overall meaning, making the necessary inferences’
and critical evaluations. There should also be the ‘identification of graphic and
paratextual elements at the service of comprehension’, work on shared and expressive
reading, as well as ‘the detection of clearly discriminatory uses of verbal and non-verbal
language’ ().
CompL work in the classroom becomes an activity that focuses on the development of
reading strategies in order to achieve, on the part of the students, the identification,
analysis, interpretation and evaluation of ideas present in a text, both written and
represented, and which must be worked on through social interaction.
Research shows that CompL is an activity directly related to academic performance
() and that it lays the foundations for the possibilities of success in the acquisition
of knowledge and the development of skills that students can achieve in the subjects,
establishing correlations between the achievements attained in the subjects and reading
skills (). Academic performance is linked to the acquisition of skills involved in CompL,
such as reading speed, reading fluency, identifying the main idea of the text, locating
specific information in a text and using the information contained in a text to develop
an argument (). The lack of acquisition of these skills is reflected in poor academic performance
and, in many cases, in a delay in school progress compared to those who do acquire
them.
However, the level of CompL of Primary Education students does not limit its influence
to academic results, but extends to the correct performance of tasks that set in motion
executive functions of working memory, inhibition and attention, which enhance ‘the
predictive power of problem solving and flexibility on literal and inferential comprehension
processes, as well as planning on text structure’ (). Correctly working on these activities enables the learner to perform the ‘essential
skill to understand what is written’ and to achieve ‘educational success’ (). Reading and understanding what is read becomes ‘an ideal means for the construction
of human autonomy’ (), allowing them to know, analyse, reflect and make decisions autonomously.
Contextual factors and teaching proposals for the improvement of CompL in the classroom
Based on the CompL tests, designed by the International Association for the Evaluation
of Educational Achievement (IEA) and applied in Spain, whose results are disseminated
by the Instituto Nacional de Educación Evaluativa, the PIRLS 2021 Reading Assessment
Framework is generated, whose main objective is ‘to gather information about the student's
family and school context for learning to read’ (). These data, based on data from schools in all the Autonomous Communities, highlight
the factors that can directly influence reading work in classroom contexts (), which are as follows:
- Student engagement: motivation or desire to read and achieve (). Highly relevant and highly influenced by the class context. Student characteristics
affect reading outcomes ().
- Implementation of reading strategies: ‘organised activities that are carried out
on a given piece of information in order to discriminate the relevant information
in a text’ (). They are key to comprehension outcomes () and increase syntactic, syntactic-semantic, and metacognitive reading comprehension
skills (). The purpose of reading conditions the reading strategy and this relationship influences
the comprehension outcome ().
- Types of texts worked on. Comprehension requires the identification of the textual
schemes that make up conventional text types (; ).
- Classroom organisation. It significantly influences CompL if a learner-centred learning
environment is created (). It includes the grouping of readers (; ) and the classroom environment ().
- Use of the school library as a resource. It supports achievement when it encourages
the acquisition of reading habits, provides a safe and welcoming environment () and presents engaging reading programmes ().
- Assessment of reading processes. Tailored to individual needs, it promotes better
learning outcomes ().
- Application of ITs. Although it is not determinant (), it brings concrete benefits in struggling readers (), so its presence should be considered.
- Teaching proposals. Its presence positively impacts () on improving motivation (), fluency and comprehension skills () and evaluation measures ().
- Teachers' training and experience. Essential for improving CompL in Primary Education;
primarily in the articulation of collaboration and assessment () and in the use of specific strategies ().
The results obtained from the PIRLS tests in Spain () in relation to these factors show that CompL training requires the work and development
of different skills or strategies for their acquisition. These are progressively completed
as the learner deals with different types of texts with different functions. The role
played by the optimisation of factors, through teaching proposals, is key to the development
of CompL work in the classroom context (). Therefore, research that aims to contribute to the improvement of students' CompL
levels must take into account their presence and analysis, in order to reach conclusions
that provide significant improvements aimed at the reality of the classroom.
Objectives and assumptions
Since the classroom is the main point of teaching, this paper deals with the study
of classroom contextual factors. In order to achieve this, the following research
objectives are proposed, focused on providing information and knowledge for the work
of improving CompL in Spain
O1. To investigate and evaluate the evidence available in the literature on the presence
of classroom contextual factors and teaching proposals as determinants of reading
comprehension work.
O2. Based on the common aspects of the conclusions reached by the scientific literature,
establish arguments reinforced with already verified hypotheses that offer opportunities
to improve the results obtained in the PIRLS tests.
They are linked to the following hypotheses:
H1. The scientific literature, seen as a reference in the search for solutions to
improve CompL levels in the classroom, is not addressing teaching proposals and fundamental
contextual factors.
H2. A case can be made for improving CompL levels in the classroom on the basis of
findings from recent scientific literature.
Method
The methodological approach of this research is mixed, as it requires inference from
the data obtained in both phases of work in order to verify the hypotheses put forward
and allows observation of the data from multiple perspectives (): in a first phase, objective measurements are made of the presence/non-presence
of classroom contextual factors in the literature; in a second phase, the conclusions
reached in the selected literature are analysed after the review, in order to identify
the coinciding arguments.
It aims at analysing the relevance of the issues raised in the hypotheses, which is
why coding by categories is used so that these can be quantified and conclusions can
be drawn through descriptive statistics. Consequently, in order to be able to apply
the chi-square test, it is necessary to group the data in order to construct a frequency
table ().
It is based on the framework of reading assessment and the elements of classroom contexts
that can directly influence reading work, included and defined in the framework of
the PIRLS 2021 context questionnaire (). Based on this classification, the following categories of analysis are established
by equivalence, which make up the study variables:
- For ‘Student engagement’: learning motivation (MA) and student characteristics (CE).
- For ‘Development of reading strategies’: reading purpose (PL) and reading strategies
(EL).
- For ‘Types of texts worked on’: textual typology (TT).
- For ‘Classroom organisation’: classroom organisation (OA).
- For ‘Using the school library as a resource’: school library (BE).
- For ‘Assessment of reading processes’: classroom assessment (EA).
- For ‘Application of ITs’: Classroom Information Technology (IT).
- For ‘Teaching proposals’: teaching proposal (DP) and promotion of learner autonomy
(FA).
- For ‘Teachers’ training and experience’: teacher preparation (PD).
For the selection of scientific literature related to reading comprehension in primary
school classrooms that can be used as a reference, we are following the methodological
line of with respect to integrative reviews and with respect to the skills and attitudes needed for a literature review:
- Selection of keywords based on objectives and hypotheses; consultation of databases
and reading of the resulting articles related to the research topic for the review
and selection of search terms and segments in combination with the Boolean marker
‘AND’.
In Spanish: rendimiento en lectura, pruebas de rendimiento, comprensión lectora; alumnos
de primaria, pruebas de lectura, contexto de aula; alumnos de primaria, pruebas de
lectura, comprensión lectora; investigación sobre lectura, comprensión lectora, métodos
de enseñanza; comprensión lectora, estrategias de lectura, factores de aula.
- Consultation of databases Dialnet, WOS and academic search engines SCINAPSE and
Google Scholar between 2018 and 2023.
Inclusion criteria: documents that exceed the criteria for a scientific publication
review; focused on the study of reading comprehension of Spanish as a mother tongue
speakers at the primary school stage; written in Spanish or English; full-text layout.
Exclusion criteria: final degree dissertations (TFG, TFM) and doctoral theses; non-referenceable
documents; presence of bias in authorship, place of publication or relationship with
entities or companies with which any of the researchers or their academic affiliation
is related.
- Selection of studies using inclusion and exclusion criteria. Choice and inclusion
with a result of n=66 (table 1 and figure 1).
Reading and locating the occurrence/non-occurrence of the categories of analysis in
the selected documents.
Identification of the percentage in which the categories are present and descriptive
statistical study to relate dichotomous variables using contingency tables (to obtain
absolute frequencies) and the chi-square statistic to see the degree of association
between different contextual classroom factors.
Table 1Distribution of the selection of publications from each database.
Databases
Search results
Pre-included
Included
Dialnet
372
30
18
WOS
84
16
10
SCINAPSE
30
14
10
Google Scholar
1203
46
28
Total
1689
106
66
Figure 1Flow chart of the review process.
In order to establish the common aspects of the conclusions reached by the scientific
literature as ‘basic components of a given phenomenon extracted from a given content’
(), we start from the descriptive sphere and apply a methodology based on the principles
of qualitative research, specifically the critical examination of scientific texts.
Based on the conclusions examined, four relevant aspects were identified in the presentation
of results:
1. Teaching practice: motivational role and working techniques;
2. Development of metacognitive, cognitive and executive process strategies;
3. Selection of materials and use of ICT;
4. Student confidence in their reading skills.
Results
Presence of key factors in scientific literature to obtain absolute frequencies
The proportion of occurrence of each variable on its own is recorded in all of the
selected scientific documents (figure 2).
Figure 2.Presence of key factors in scientific literature.
The least common variable is the school library (BE): it only appears in 3.1% of the
documents. This is followed by assessment or feedback to the student on their reading
work in the classroom (EA): only 17% of research considers this. Furthermore, only
a fifth of the studies (19.7%) present any teaching proposals (PD). Twenty percent
of the studies address the issue of teacher preparation (PD). Similarly, the implementation
of measures to promote student autonomy in learning (FA) is present in 20% of the
projects. 29% consider using ICT through some device and/or online reading (IT).
In contrast, 90.8% address the type of reading material used in the classroom, according
to medium, communication code or model (TT). A high percentage, 76.9%, also take into
account aspects of classroom organisation (OA), such as space management and student
organisation; and 82% address either enjoyment or the acquisition and use of information
by the reader as a purpose of reading (PL).
An intermediate percentage (54%) addresses characteristics of students related to
learning difficulties (CE), while 49% addresses the analysis of cognitive and/or metacognitive
reading strategies (EL) and the implementation of measures to motivate and involve
students in learning to read (MA), with a 36.4% occurrence.
The percentage of articles that include a teaching proposal (PD) is significantly
lower (19.7%) than the percentage that do not (80.3%). Given that 100% of the documents
analysed include two or more variables, the studies presenting PD examine the inclusion
of each of the other variables that could enrich it. To this end, a specific correlation
analysis is performed between this variable and the others, along with a chi-square
test to determine the degree of association between the PD variable and the rest,
with a significance level of 5%, which yields the following results. Since all p-values
are less than 0.05, we assume that all variables are linked to the PD (Table 2).
Table 2Significance level results of the comparison of the PPD variable with the rest of
the variables (Pearson's chi-square test).
VARIABLES
ASYNCHRONOUS SIGNIFICANCE
BAU
<.001
CAE
<.001
PRE
<.001
EVA
<.001
TPM
<.001
PDL
<.001
EST
<.001
MOT
<.001
OAU
<.001
FAU
<.001
After analysis, the results shown in figure 3 are obtained.
Figure 3Comparison of the presence of other variables in studies presenting a teaching proposal
(PPD).
It is noteworthy that no study (0%) mentions the school library (BE). Next, the three
variables that are moderately present are student characteristics (CE, 33.3%), teacher
preparation (PD, 41.7%) and classroom assessment (EA, 46.2%). This is followed by
information technology in the classroom (IT, 58.3%). The rest have a high incidence
rate: led by text type (TT, 92.3%), followed by reading purpose (PL, 84.6%); reading
strategies (EL, 76.9%); motivation to learn (MA, 76.9%); classroom organisation (OA,
75%) and promotion of student autonomy (FA, 69.2%).
Common aspects of the conclusions reached by the scientific literature
The common aspects related to improving the performance of students with CompL in
the classroom that have been identified in the conclusions of the selected scientific
literature, presented as hypotheses that are verified through the results, are as
follows:
- Teaching practice: motivational role and working techniques: Teaching practice is
central to the organisation of the CompL's work in the classroom, both in its motivational
role and in the selection and implementation of methodological techniques that promote
students' awareness of the identification and understanding of meanings (; ; ). The correct methodological selection of working techniques by teachers is shown
to be a determining factor in the development and acquisition of CompL skills, both
in students with diagnosed learning difficulties and in students without such difficulties
(; ; ; ).
- Development of executive, metacognitive and cognitive process strategies. Teacher
support is considered key to helping students develop different strategies that enable
them to understand different types of texts independently and identify, select and
analyse information, as well as construct new knowledge as a result of the interaction
between the reader and the text (). In order for these practices to be possible, the value of metacognitive and cognitive
reading comprehension strategies as tools for increasing and consolidating CompL among
students is highlighted (; ). Furthermore, the development of executive functioning and CompL training in students
at the end of primary education appear to be closely linked: CompL has been shown
to be closely related to working memory, and their performance is similar ().
Regarding the link between executive functions, student tasks and CompL, specifically defend the need for classroom training in this executive function of
attention to improve CompL.
- Selection of text types and use of ICT. The conclusions of studies on this topic
agree that selecting stimulating teaching materials significantly helps to engage
students in understanding texts and discovering new knowledge through them (). show that, alongside the most frequently used narrative texts, it is necessary to
work with more difficult expository texts. Studies have also shown the use of proverbs
(, cartoons and comics, which depart from linear reading and promote the acquisition
of inferential and critical skills ().
In addition to selecting texts as part of the creation of stimulating teaching materials
for reading, the digital format promotes interest in reading, facilitates reading
comprehension and encourages collaborative learning (). Therefore, ICTs are presented as a motivating factor for reading (; ; ), as a methodological strategy that predicts success due to its motivational capacity
() and as a tool for improving critical comprehension among students who show an initial
lack of interest in reading, difficulties in reading comprehension processes and poor
verbal fluency ().
- Student confidence in their reading skills. In relation to CompL, the conclusions
analysed establish that resilience is conditioned in students by their self-confidence
in their reading abilities (). The direct relationship between self-concept and motivation to read is established
by , which link it to significant development in reading comprehension skills. In self-perception
and reading development, the educational level of the family or legal guardians is
identified as a determining factor (), who act as cultural mediators ().
Discussion and conclusions
This research provides an update on the attention given in the scientific literature
to the different contextual factors in the classroom that influence CompL work, as
defined by . As new content, it identifies the common points established in the specialised literature
regarding classroom needs for improving CompL work. This way, it offers opportunities
for improvement in this field.
The analysis carried out on the presence of contextual factors in the classroom has
highlighted the differences that exist in the attention paid to some students compared
to others, which is sometimes practically non-existent.
It has been observed that textual typology, reading purpose and classroom organisation
are widely present, which highlights aspects directly related to formal elements of
task planning in the classroom for the development of CompL. Focusing on these factors,
which are certainly relevant, but ignoring others such as the classroom library, the
promotion of student autonomy, teacher training and classroom assessment, is a determining
factor in achieving improved results in CompL acquisition processes.
In order to improve the work of the CompL, it is necessary, first, to plan teaching
proposals that address each of the factors and, second, to make them available to
classrooms, especially after confirming that the presence of teaching proposals in
the scientific literature analysed is very low. Furthermore, the localised proposals
also show shortcomings in addressing some of these factors, mainly school libraries,
student characteristics, teacher training and assessment.
Although this study has some limitations, such as the lack of publications in languages
other than Spanish and English, and the continuous emergence of new publications,
it does identify the need for the design and publication of teaching proposals to
consider the relevance of all contextual factors in the classroom and to provide teachers
with materials and options for intervention that optimise comprehension work. These
proposals should position the school library as a key tool for promoting reading habits,
access to different reading media and metacognitive learning (); they should propose continuous and formative assessment of students' progress in
comprehension, in order to promote student autonomy and the evaluation of processes
by teachers. In turn, the foregoing should articulate the different factors that will
positively influence reading comprehension work in the classroom, promoting strategies
that encourage participation, self-regulation, and the development of students' metacognitive
aspects (). Furthermore, the proposals designed must consider account the characteristics of
students with learning difficulties, given their relevance for classroom decision-making
on how to approach comprehension work based on the neurocognitive and socio-emotional
variables involved in the teaching-learning process ().
As for the results obtained from the critical review of the conclusions reached in
the scientific literature selected to establish common aspects, the importance of
teaching practice in CompL work can be inferred, both in the selection of working
techniques that promote the development of metacognitive, cognitive and executive
process strategies, and in the motivational role: strategies influence the progress
of the reading and writing process and learning in general, and their assessment in
primary school pupils is essential for the initial diagnosis of CompL and the evaluation
of results (). Furthermore, the acquisition of these strategies by students also has an impact
on the confidence they gain in their own reading ability (), which directly influences their level of motivation towards comprehension work
and predicts their success in these tasks ().
Furthermore, critical examination highlights the importance of selecting materials
and utilising ICT as tools for teaching practice in CompL. Selecting teaching materials
that spark a desire to learn and stimulate students' curiosity, accompanied by a format
that appeals to their tastes and interests, benefits the attention devoted to the
activity, the detection of more correct answers, and the self-regulation of reading
speed (). At this point, we should become aware of the value of the classroom library and
integrate it as a working tool for CompL: a careful selection, based on literary quality
and taking into account the preferences of the students, will help them approach the
text with greater interest and, therefore, greater motivation.
The combination of these conclusions, reinforced by verified hypotheses (teaching
practice: motivational role and working techniques; development of metacognitive,
cognitive and executive process strategies; selection of materials and use of ICT;
and student confidence in their reading abilities), offers opportunities for work
to improve the results obtained in CompL work in the classroom.
Teachers who need to improve CompL levels in their classrooms should analyse whether
the acquisition process they implement considers contextual factors. If this is not
the case, they should rethink the design of the teaching proposals they will ultimately
work on with the students, taking each student into account and drawing on their own
training in these fundamental aspects.
Likewise, in relation to theoretical educational implications, it is clear that institutions
must address the need to design curricula that take into account the contextual constraints
of CompL in the classroom, so that students acquire behaviours, skills and attitudes
that favour the results obtained in relation to reading.
Scientific literature needs to pay greater attention to studying the presence of these
factors, comparing the results obtained in CompL processes where they are not present
with those where they are, observing progress and indicating their level of relevance.
Finally, it is found that the results obtained are relevant and will serve as a basis
for further studies, as they demonstrate the need to systematically and consciously
address contextual factors in the classroom. To this end, as a future line of research,
there is a need to conduct a study to determine the extent to which these factors
are known and addressed by teachers in Spain and, once the results have been obtained,
to design training courses and teaching proposals aimed at meeting the needs identified.
The lack of a validated data collection tool is a limitation for this future line
of research and highlights the need to design one.
Funding
This research has been funded by the Cardenal Spínola CEU University Studies Centre
through the project ‘Analysis of contextual factors in reading comprehension in primary
education and the training of critical readers (ACOLEC)’ [PRECOM_CSCEU22-3], evaluated
by the Spanish State Research Agency (AEI).
Authors’ contributions
Inmaculada Mena-Bernal: Project management; Formal analysis; Conceptualisation; Data curation; Writing –
original draft; Writing – review and editing; Research; Methodology; Resources; Software;
Supervision; Validation.
Beatriz Hoster: Project management; Formal analysis; Conceptualisation; Data curation; Writing –
original draft; Writing – review and editing; Research; Methodology; Resources; Software;
Supervision; Validation.
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