Research shows that parents’ educational level and socioeconomic group impact their children’s learning, performance, and reading habits. Therefore, this study analyses the reading mediation practices in families of early childhood education students with a high vulnerability index and their relationship with the development of three pre-reading skills: phonological awareness, rapid automatised naming (RAN), and alphabet knowledge. Methodologically, the study employed a positivist paradigm with a correlational, cross-sectional, and non-experimental design. Two instruments were used: a questionnaire administered to the families regarding the frequency of reading mediation activities, and the ABCDeti test, administered to the children to evaluate their reading skills. Analyses were performed using the Jamovi software and Spearman’s correlation, which revealed that families do not frequently read to their children. Results also showed eight significant and positive correlations, highlighting the link between joint story reading and phonological awareness, and between exposure to music and rapid automatised naming (RAN). Conclusively, it is essential to promote reading mediation in homes, especially because the practices with the highest positive correlation with reading development are precisely those that families do not prioritize, performing them "rarely".
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Cortés-Merino, F., & Soto-Muñoz, M.-E. (2026). Reading mediation in vulnerable families and development of emergent literacy skills in children. Ocnos. Journal of reading research, 25(2). https://doi.org/10.18239/ocnos_2026.25.2.615
Cortés-Merino and Soto-Muñoz: Reading mediation in vulnerable families and development of emergent literacy skills
in children
INTRODUCTION
In Chile, the preparation for the formal process of learning to read begins in kindergarten,
is a complex process that requires mastery of both alphabetic decoding and text comprehension
(). To achieve adequate reading performance, the early development of predictive skills,
including phonological awareness, rapid automatised naming, and knowledge of the alphabet,
is essential (; ). These skills are strengthened through emergent literacy, a concept that emphasises
the initial acquisition of reading and writing in everyday, non-formal contexts ().
In this context, the family plays a central role in the child’s reading process, as
through reading mediation (RM), parents encourage children to engage with written
language through interactions that integrate affective, emotional and motivational
components (; ). Empirical evidence shows that active family involvement, particularly shared reading
and contextualisation of narrative texts, promotes early literacy development and
has a positive impact on children’s future reading skills (; ; ).
However, the potential of reading mediation is conditioned by socio-economic inequalities,
particularly in Chile, where the school vulnerability index (IVE) reaches 79% in public
schools (), which has a direct impact on low academic achievement and contributes to the persistence
of social segregation (; ; ; ).
With regard to the above, indicates that, in lower-income socioeconomic groups (classes D and E), more than
60% of parents did not complete their schooling, a situation that is linked to lower
child performance and limited family participation in the learning process (; ). Consequently, promoting reading mediation takes on special relevance in the most
vulnerable households.
In the academic sphere, the 2022 SIMCE (Education Quality Measurement System, as per
its Spanish acronym) assessment revealed an educational gap of 55 points between higher
and lower income socio-economic groups, underscoring the urgency of providing greater
support for reading instruction from early childhood education levels onwards ().
Despite the documented link between socioeconomic context, family involvement, and
reading development, there remains a gap in the national literature regarding which
reading mediation practices are most effective and how they relate to the development
of specific pre-reading skills.
Within this framework, the aim of this study is to analyse the reading mediation practices
implemented by families in vulnerable situations and their relationship with three
early reading skills proposed by the : phonological awareness (which allows for the detection, manipulation, or analysis
of speech sounds), rapid automatised naming (quickly naming sequences of letters,
digits, colours, or objects arranged in random order), and knowledge of the alphabet
(recognising the symbols, names, and sounds of letters) in kindergarten students in
the Biobío Region, Chile.
METHOD
Design of the research
The study was approached from a positivist paradigm, using a non-experimental, cross-sectional
approach. The methodological approach is correlational, seeking to establish the relationship
between the variables of family reading mediation and pre-reading skills without deliberate
manipulation. This analysis strategy aligns with the simple correlational design (SCD)
proposed by . Furthermore, it is defined as cross-sectional given that the data collection was
conducted at a single specific point in time ().
Participants
The population consisted of kindergarten students and their respective families from
the Biobío Region, Chile. The final sample consisted of 96 families and 96 children
from six educational establishments in the region.
Sampling was non-probabilistic, intentionally selected to meet the study objectives
and the following inclusion criteria:
- Adherence to the Marco Project: Previous participation in Fondecyt Initiation project
No. 11230995, to which this research is linked.
- Socio-economic vulnerability: Have a School Vulnerability Index (IVE, as per its
Spanish acronym) equal to or greater than 75% in student enrolment.
- Institutional Consent: To obtain the signature of the head teacher authorising participation
in the project.
Consequently, establishments that did not meet the established socio-economic criteria
were excluded, as were students with Special Educational Needs (SEN), learning disorders
or those from children's homes.
Instruments
Two instruments were used to measure the research variables:
1. Assessment of Initial Reading Skills (ABCDeti)
To assess the development of pre-reading skills in students, the ABCDeti test was
used, developed by the Centre for the Development of Inclusion Technologies (CEDETI
UC, https://www.cedeti.cl/quienes-somos). This instrument allows for an individual diagnosis of initial reading competence,
applicable from pre-kinder to the fourth year of primary school ().
More specifically, this study focused on three skills: phonological awareness (scores
from 0 to 32), knowledge of the alphabet (scores from 0 to 10), and rapid automatised
naming (scores established by sample performance).
The instrument classifies the performance of those assessed according to three development
criteria:
- Intervention Level: Performance is below expectations, requiring learning support.
- Process Level: The student is acquiring the knowledge expected for their educational
level, although there may still be specific areas of knowledge that need to be addressed.
- Expected Level: The developmental standard for early reading skills is met, based
on the child’s age and stage.
2. Family Reading Mediation Questionnaire (CSDAE)
Reading mediation practices were identified using the Socio-Family Questionnaire on
Emerging Literacy Domains (CSDAE, as per its Spanish acronym) (). Of the five core factors of this instrument, the study focused on the dimension
of Home Learning Activities (HLA).
The instrument was adapted to 13 items specifically related to the three pre-reading
skills considered. The primary question was: How often do you do the following activities
with the student? Responses are evaluated on a 5-point Likert scale, where 1 is “rarely”
and 5 is “most days of the week”. The scores for each item range from 1 to 5, and
the total score for each skill is obtained by adding up the corresponding answers.
Procedure
The data collection procedure was carried out in three stages:
1. Ethical and institutional approval: It began by requesting the necessary permissions
to access and use the database (ABCDeti assessment) of the framework project, Fondecyt
Initiation 11230995. Institutional approval was then coordinated through an interview
with the directors of the six educational establishments. At this stage, a formal
letter detailing the objectives and scope of the research was delivered, requesting
his signature to ensure institutional consent. This step was carried out in accordance
with the principle of Respect for Persons, established in the Belmont Report ().
2. Application of the ABCDeti assessment: The ABCDeti individual assessment was implemented
in May 2024 by two previously trained assessors. Its application was conducted electronically
and the scores obtained were recorded directly on the test platform for subsequent
analysis.
3. Application of the questionnaire to families: In order for the questionnaires to
be collected, informed consent forms were provided to families, ensuring that their
participation was voluntary. Parent meetings were attended to maximise the response
rate, with five minutes allocated to explain the purpose of the study and its benefits,
thus complying with the principle of beneficence of the Belmont Report (1979). Ten
minutes were allocated for attendees to complete the instrument in person. The questionnaire
was sent to absent families via their children’s teachers. After a month of data collection,
a total of 96 responses were obtained.
Analytical procedures
The data from the questionnaire was entered into a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, in
which the reading mediation practices carried out at home were coded using the initials
of each activity, for example: L-C-C = joint story reading. They were then grouped
into three categories corresponding to each reading skill. The ABCDeti assessment
data, provided by the Fondecyt Initiation project 11230995, was then integrated into
the same spreadsheet.
Descriptive statistics were used with Jamovi software (), which enabled correlational analysis. First, the normality of the variables was
assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test, given that most of the variables exhibited marked
asymmetry (i.e., a non-parametric distribution). Thus, Spearman’s correlation coefficient
was chosen to determine the significant and positive relationships between mediation
practices and the development of pre-reading skills.
RESULTS
The results section presents the findings derived from the analysis of the data obtained
through the ABCDeti assessment and the Socio-Family Questionnaire (CSDAE).
Family reading mediation practices
Table 1 shows the scores obtained for the 13 items surveyed by frequency intervals regarding
the reading activities carried out by families at home. Of these, the average shows
that priority is given to routine activities or visual exposure with high frequency
(“most days of the week”), such as:
- Naming household objects (NO. M = 4.27).
- Helping to identify signs and logos (PEL. M = 4.02).
- Identifying letters of the alphabet in written texts (RLA. M = 3.96).
Conversely, practices involving less interaction and time commitment are those carried
out “rarely” (less than once a month):
- Attending music concerts (ACM. M = 1.34).
- Making rhymes with short words (RPC. M = 2.26).
- Reading stories (LC. M = 2.53).
- Joint story reading (LCC. M = 2.59).
- Identifying titles and authors in written texts (RTA). M = 2.59).
Table 1Reading mediation practices at home
N
Mean
Median
Trend
SD
Minimum
Maximum
L_C
96
2.53
3.00
1.00
1,305
1
5
L_C_C
96
2.59
3.00
1.00
1,326
1
5
C_R_P
96
3.11
3.00
4.00
1,421
1
5
R_P_C
96
2.26
2.00
1.00
1,316
1
5
S_I
96
3.95
4.00
4.00
1,099
1
5
C_S_P
96
3.66
4.00
5.00
1,336
1
5
A_C_M
96
1.34
1.00
1.00
0,792
1
5
N_O
96
4.27
5.00
5.00
1,081
1
5
P_E_L
96
4.02
4.00
5.00
1,179
1
5
P_N
96
3.73
4.00
5.00
1,183
1
5
R_L
96
3.82
4.00
4.00
1,124
1
5
R_L_A
96
3.96
4.00
5.00
1,123
1
5
R_T_A
96
2.59
2.00
1.00
1,396
1
5
Note LC = Read stories to child her before bedtime; LCC = Joint story reading; CRP = Singing
or reciting poetry; RPC = Making rhymes with short words; SI = Asking the child about
the initial sounds of words; CSP = Asking the child how many syllables words have;
ACM = Attending music concerts; NO = Naming objects found at home; PEL = Helping the
child identify or recognise signs and logos; PN = Learning new words; RL = Reciting
the letters of the alphabet; RLA = Identifying the letters of the alphabet in various
written texts; RTA = Idenfifying titles and authors in written texts.
Level of development of reading skills
The results of the ABCDeti assessment (May 2024) for each pre-reading skill are:
Knowledge of the alphabet: As can be seen in Table 2, 56.3% of students are in the process of development, which shows that most of them
are acquiring knowledge of graphemes and letter names expected for their level. 22.9%
are at the expected level and 20.8% require intervention. This shows that most students
are in the process of learning and recognising the names and graphemes of letters
specific to their educational level (vowels and consonants m-l-p-s).
Table 2Frequency of the skill Knowledge of the alphabet (CA)
C_A
Frequencies
% of Total
Expected
20
22.9
In progress
54
56.3
Intervention
20
20.8
Note C_A = Knowledge of the alphabet.
Phonological awareness: Table 3 shows that 95% of students are at the “in progress” level, 4% are at the “intervention”
level, and only 1.0% are at the “expected” level. This indicates that the vast majority
are acquiring syllabic segmentation and syllable and sound recognition skills. Based
on these results, it is projected that by the end of the academic year (December 2024),
they will have progressed from the “in progress” level to the “expected” level.
Table 3Frequency of the Phonological Awareness skill (CF)
C_FO
Frequencies
% of Total
Expected
1
1.0
In progress
91
94.8
Intervention
4
4.2
Note C-FO = Phonological Awareness.
Writing pace: Table 4 indicates that 55.2% of students have a writing pace classified as slow or very slow
(16.7% very slow and 38.5% slow). This indicates that more than half of the preschoolers
take between 11 and 20 seconds to name a sequence of six objects. Only 17.7% have
a fast pace.
These results indicate that most students are at the “in progress” level in both phonological
awareness and alphabet knowledge, which is considered adequate for the time of application
(first semester of 2024). However, rapid automatised naming shows a high percentage
at the slowest levels.
Table 4Frequency of Rapid automatised naming
V_D
Frequencies
% of the total
Very slow
16
16.7
Slow
37
38.5
Average
26
27.1
Fast
17
17.7
Very fast
0
0
Note V_D = Rapid automatised naming.
Correlation between reading mediation practices and reading skill development
To correlate both variables, the scores for each reading activity carried out at home
(according to ability) were first added together. The codes for these activities are
presented in Table 5 as follows: TPML-CF, TPML-VD and TPML-CA. The scores obtained through the ABCDeti
test were ranked according to the specific action that each student had to perform,
whose codes are: VD1, PA2, PA3, CF-SS, CF-RSI, CF-RSF, CF-RSOI, CF-RSOF, detailed
in the same table.
To determine the appropriate correlation coefficient (Pearson or Spearman), the distribution
of the variables was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk normality test (Table 5). The results showed that most variables exhibited marked asymmetry, except for the
Reading Mediation Practice for Phonological Awareness (TPML-CF), whose p-value exceeded
the threshold of 0.05 (indicating normality). Due to the absence of a parametric distribution
in most of the data, the correlation analysis was therefore performed using Spearman’s
non-parametric coefficient.
Table 5Normal distribution of data: Mediation practices according to ability and scores per
item on the ABCDeti test
Skewness
Kurtosis
Shapiro-Wilk
Variables
N
Mean
Median
Trend
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Skewness
EE
Kurtosis
EE
W
p
TPML-CF
96
19.44
19.50
17.00
5.39
9
31
0,014
0,246
-0,599
.488
.983
.231
TPML-VD
96
8.29
9.00
10.00
1.93
2
10
-1,403
0,246
2,036
.488
.816
<.001
TPML-CA
96
14.10
14.00
16.00
3.72
4
20
-0,436
0,246
-0,132
.488
.967
.016
VD-1
96
11690.63
10782.50
0.00
3973.34
0
28408
1,406
0,246
4,866
.488
.881
<.001
PA-2
96
6.14
6.00
12.00
3.92
0
12
-0,038
0,246
-1,322
.488
.929
<.001
PA-3
96
3.19
2.00
1.00
2.58
0
10
1,135
0,246
0,536
.488
.865
<.001
CF-SS
96
4.84
5.00
5.00
2.40
0
8
-0,5735
0,246
-0,530
0,488
.920
<.001
CF-RSI
96
3.36
3.00
3.00
1.25
1
6
0,0673
0,246
-0,337
0,488
.936
<.001
CF-RSF
96
2.59
3.00
2.00
1.15
0
5
-0,1282
0,246
-0,325
0,488
.925
<.001
CF-RSOI
96
1.70
2.00
2.00
1.39
0
6
0,8772
0,246
0,938
0,488
.890
<.001
CF-RSOF
96
2.06
2.00
2.00
1.18
0
5
0,2722
0,246
-0,582
0,488
.919
<.001
a There is more than one trend, only the first one is reported
Note TPML-CF = Total reading mediation practices - phonological awareness; TPML-VD = Total
reading mediation practices - rapid automatised naming ; TPML-CA = Total reading mediation
practices - knowledge of the alphabet; VD1 = Rapid automatised naming in milliseconds;
PA2= Alphabetical principle 2 - knowledge of letter graphemes; PA3 = Alphabetical
principle 3 – knowledge of letter names; CF-SS = Phonological awareness – syllable
segmentation; CF-RSI = Phonological awareness – initial syllable recognition; CF-RSF
= Phonological awareness – final syllable recognition; CF-RSOI = Phonological awareness
– initial sound recognition; CF-RSOF = Phonological awareness – final sound recognition.
Table 6 presents the main correlation findings. For ease of reading, the activities consulted
in the questionnaire are positioned in the upper strip from left to right, while the
skills measured by the ABCDeti test are located vertically on the left.
The table shows a total of 12 numerical correlations; however, only eight were considered that
fulfilled both the numerical and content requirements for the study. These eight correlations,
which proved to be significant, positive, and weak, were found among the following
variables:
Phonological Awareness
- Joint story reading “LCC” correlates with the development of phonological awareness
by recognising the final syllable “CF-RSF” (rho = .213; p < .05).
- Activities in which students are asked to recognise the titles and authors of written
texts “PML-RTA”, with the development of phonological awareness specifically in syllabic
segmentation “CF-SS” (rho = .221; p < .05).
Knowledge of the alphabet (activities carried out using visual aids)
- Singing or reciting poetry “PML-CRP” is related to the alphabetical principle referring
to knowledge of the graphemes of the letters “PA2” (rho = .205; p < .05).
- Reading mediation practices involving reciting the letters of the alphabet “PML-RL”
correlate with knowledge of the grapheme of the letters “PA2” (rho = .213; p < .05).
- Activities in which students are asked to recognise the titles and authors of written
texts “PML-RTA”, with the development of knowledge of the alphabet in terms of knowledge
of the graphemes “PA2” (rho = .220; p < .05).
- Activities in which students are asked to recognise the titles and authors of written
texts “PML-RTA” with the development of knowledge of the alphabet in terms of the
names of the letters “PA3” (rho = .238; p < .05).
- Total reading mediation practices related to knowledge of the alphabet TPML-CA,
i.e., activities such as reciting and recognising letters of the alphabet in written
texts or recognising titles, show a correlation with the development of the alphabetical
principle (PA-3) in terms of knowledge of the names of letters (rho = .220; p < .05).
Rapid automatised naming
- Attending “PML-ACM” music concerts with student rapid automatised naming “VD1” (rho
= .218; p < .05).
Table 6Correlation between reading mediation practices (RMP) and reading skill development
Note PML-LC = Reading mediation practices referring to reading stories before bedtime;
PML-LCC = Reading mediation practices referring to joint story reading; PML-CRP =
Reading mediation practices referring to singing or reciting poetry; PML-RPC = Reading
mediation practices referring to rhyming with short words; PML-SI = Reading mediation
practices referring to asking the child about the initial sounds of words; PML-CSP
= Reading mediation practices related to asking the child how many syllables words
have; PML-ACM = Reading mediation practices related to attending music concerts; TPML-CF
= Total reading mediation practices related to phonological awareness; PML-NO = Reading
mediation practices referring to asking the child to name objects found in the home;
PML-PEL = Reading mediation practices that help the child identify or recognise signs
and logos; TPML-VN = Total reading mediation practices framed within rapid automatised
naming ; PML-PN = Reading mediation practices referring to learning new words; PML-RL
= Reading mediation practices referring to reciting the letters of the alphabet; PML-RLA
= Reading mediation practices related to recognising the letters of the alphabet in
various written texts; PML-RTA = Reading mediation practices related to recognising
titles and authors in written texts; TPML-CA = Total reading mediation practices related
to knowledge of the alphabet. Three other numerical correlations were found, but they
were not considered as they did not make sense in terms of content.
Discussion and conclusions
The aim of this study was to analyse the relationship between family reading mediation
practices and the development of phonological awareness, rapid automatised naming
and knowledge of the alphabet in preschool children from highly vulnerable contexts.
Reading mediation practices: descriptive results confirm a low frequency of essential
dialogic reading practices in the households analysed. Only 5% of families admit to
“reading stories to their children” and 6% to “reading stories together” on a regular
basis (“most days of the week”). In contrast, one-third of families engage in these
activities “rarely”.
This low frequency of direct and shared reading in vulnerable contexts is consistent
with previous literature (; ). The persistent lack of priority given to shared reading is a key variable contributing
to the persistence of educational gaps observed, for example, in the SIMCE test. Consequently,
it is imperative that interventions focus on promoting reading mediation effectively
and consistently in these contexts.
Correlation of variables: the most relevant finding is that the activities that showed
significant and positive correlations with the development of pre-reading skills are
precisely those that families do less frequently, i.e., “rarely”. This highlights
the critical need to encourage their implementation at home.
1. Phonological awareness: the correlation between “reading stories together” and
phonological awareness confirms that this practice directly promotes language and
literacy skills, which is in line with recent research (; ).
2. Rapid automatised naming: the correlation between “attendance at music concerts”
and rapid automatised naming suggests a non-traditional link. Although previous studies
(; ) focus on the impact of musical exposure on phonological awareness or reading fluency
in general, exposure to rhythmic structures and the auditory and visual processing
involved in music could strengthen the cognitive processes necessary for visual-auditory
processing pace, which is key to rapid automatised naming.
These results, combined with the high percentage of preschoolers at the ‘slow’ level
of rapid automatised naming (55.2%), suggest a significant omission in the curriculum.
Word-finding pace is not usually an explicit objective in early childhood education
or primary education curricula and programmes, despite its fundamental role as a predictor
of reading fluency and accuracy (; Pujals et al., 2019). Educational curricula need to be reformulated to include specific
objectives that promote their development from an early age.
In conclusion, the low frequency of the most effective reading mediation practices
in vulnerable households compromises the timely development of pre-reading skills.
The findings confirm the need for:
1. Encouraging shared reading: actively promote joint story reading activities, given
their positive correlations with phonological awareness.
2. Exploring music: Investigating and incorporate musical exposure as a promising
practice for enhancing rapid automatised naming.
3. Educational intervention: Intervening in schools with workshops and guides for
parents that promote these evidence-based mediation practices.
These findings are highly relevant to the teaching of reading in early childhood education,
providing an empirical basis for guiding emergent literacy practices both at school
and at home.
However, it is important to recognise that this study has certain limitations that
must be considered when interpreting the results. Among these is the restriction of
the sample to highly vulnerable public establishments only, which prevents comparison
with private establishments or those with a lower social risk index. Another important
methodological limitation was the adaptation of the CSDAE instrument, which required
omitting items not related to the three pre-reading skills that were the focus of
the study.
As a future projection, the construction of a more specific instrument and the expansion
of the sample are proposed to consolidate a teaching and family guide that will contribute
to bridging educational gaps.
AUTHORS’ CONTRIBUTIONS
Fernanda-Carolina Cortés-Merino: Project management; Formal analysis; Conceptualisation; Data curation; Writing –
original draft; Writing – review and editing; Research; Methodology; Resources; Software;
Fund acquisition.
María-Eugenia Soto-Muñoz: Project management; Conceptualisation; Writing – review and editing; Supervision;
Validation; Visualisation; Fund acquisition
FUNDING
This research has been funded by the National Research and Development Agency (ANID,
Chile) through the Fondecyt Initiation project No. 11230995 and the National Master’s
Scholarship.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank Consuelo Manosalba, PhD and Dr Beatriz Arancibia, PhD for their
support and for granting permission to use the “Socio-family Questionnaire on Emerging
Literacy Domains” tool, which was administered to families.
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